type_t is the notion used to denote a typedef for type

/* This example is from do_journal.c in e2fsprogs */
struct journal_transaction_s {
...
    blk64_t start, end;
...
};
typedef struct journal_transaction_s journal_transaction_t;

Know about headers like stddef.h and stdint.h and when they are supposed to be used.

• Primarily when to use normal data types like int vs int16_t etc?
• from https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/types/integer we can sense that
  • int_t* version are exact width types which might have some perf side effects if the underlying hardware does not support the width natively.
    • For example in visual studio x86/x64 typedef short int16_t; and typedef int int32_t;
  • int_fast_t* on the other hand make sure a suitable width which maps natively to the available hardware type
    • For example in visual studio x86/x64 typedef int int_fast16_t; instead of typedef short int_fast16_t;
• size_t on the other hand alias to the natural unsigned word length of the hardware for example on x86 typedef unsigned int size_t; and on x64 typedef unsigned __int64 size_t;

Know your compiler predefined standard macros

• On Microsoft compiler
• _WIN64 - defined when we are compiling for x64 code
• _WIN32 - defined when both x86 and x64 code is getting compiled
• _MSC_VER - defines which compiler version are we using, indicate different visual studio versions
• __cplusplus - defined when the translation unit is compiled as C++

[2019-09-08 02:04:47] We can get a FILE* from HANDLE using below APIs from io.h and fcntl.h

• Fd = _open_osfhandle((intptr_t)Handle, _O_TEXT);
• File = _wfdopen(Fd, L"r"); Once we get the FILE* we can use fgets for line oriented string operations

[2019-09-08 21:33:31] Explore UCRT

[2019-09-15 23:09:58] Learned about var args and aligned memory

• Aligned memory means the address returned by the _aligned_malloc is always divisible by the alignment we specify.
• For example: char *p = _aligned_malloc(10, 4); the address return in p will be always be divisible by 4. We should also free the allocated memory using _aligned_free(p)
• atoi(str) this api also processes input string until it can convert.
  • For example atoi("123asda") will still give 123 as the return result.
  • Any whitespace in the beginning of the input string will be ignored. So atoi(" 123asd") will still return 123
  • It is recommended to use strto* functions to convert strings to int/long/float types as they also can return pointer to the character which is a non integer

[2019-09-18 3:26:58] UCRT support around 40 POSIX system level APIs but most of these have _ prefix to them.

• wimlib in wimlib_tchar.h defines #define topen _open for Win32 and #define topen open for POSIX systems
• The take away here is the UCRT implementation even though differ in name the parameters are exactly the same.
• For example:

•   UCRT Win32: int _open(const char *filename, int oflag, int pmode);
    POSIX:      int  open(const char *pathname, int flags, mode_t mode);

[2019-09-22 02:31:39] We can install only build tools(VC compiler) excluding IDE from https://aka.ms/buildtools

[2019-09-25 22:35:19]

• Best video on C Standard and some of its less known features - "New" Features in C - Dan Saks

  • Year	C Standard	Comments
    1983		C standard committee is formed
    1989	C89	C89 US standard
    1990	C90	C89 International Standard
    1999	C99	C99 Standard
    2011	C11	C11 Standard
    2018	C18	C18 Bugfix release

  • _reserved - Reserved for global scope. But we can use any identifier with an _ as a local variable or a structure member
  • __reserved - Always reserved. Meaning the user program should not use any variable with two underscores __
  • _Reserved - Always reserved. Meaning the user program should not use any variable with an underscore and capital letter.
    • This is the reason why _Bool is named that way to prevent breaking existing bool typedef used in existing code.

[2019-09-25 22:35:19]

• Another good video on lesser known C features - Choosing the Right Integer Types in C and C++ - Dan Saks - code::dive 2018
  • we can use CHAR_BIT from limits.h instead of 8 for example when you want to print the bits in a integer, we can do below

    for (size_t i = sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT; i >= 0; i--) {...}

[2019-09-26 01:28:14]

• size_t denotes the native architecture supported natural size. So for 32bit it is 4 bytes unsigned quantity and for 64bit it is 8 bytes unsigned quantity. Hence it is defined as follows

  #ifdef _WIN64
      typedef unsigned __int64 size_t;   //8 bytes on x64
  #else
      typedef unsigned int     size_t;   //4 bytes on x86
  #endif

• where as uintmax_t denotes the maximum integer type that is available in the language. So on a 32bit you could still represent a 64 bit quantity using long long even though it not what the architecture directly maps to. So below is how it is defined in both x86 and x64

  typedef unsigned long long uintmax_t;  //in MSVC both x86 and x64 support 64 bit quantities using long long

• So size_t does not give us the maximum unsigned integer, instead it gives us the native unsigned integer i.e., on x86 it will be 32bits and on x64 it is 64bits.
• So recommendation is to use size_t where ever possible instead of using int. for example.

  int len = strlen(str); // not recommended because on both x86 and x64 of MSVC int is 4 bytes due to LLP64
  size_t len = strlen(str); // recommended because size_t will automatically maps to 4 bytes in x86 and 8 bytes in x64

[2019-09-26 22:14:54]

• C11 introduced the concept of static asserts. These are basically conditional asserts which can be evaluated during compile time. So C11 has a new keyword called _Static_assert(expr, message) The reason for this ugly name is the same idea of not to break existing code. so for convenience assert.h header provides static_assert macro which mean the same.
  • One of the use of static asserts is below

    struct book {
      int pages;
      char author[10];
      float price;
    };
    
    static_assert(sizeof(struct book) == sizeof(int) + 10 * sizeof(char) + sizeof(float),
                  "structure contains padding holes!");

[2019-09-27 06:44:00]

• Another good video on some low level details - Storage Duration and Linkage in C and C++ - Dan Saks

[2019-09-27 17:12:49]

• #define _CRT_SECURE_NO_WARNINGS can be used to disable CRT warning for common functions.

[2019-10-04 23:07:45]

• 
• for example, below code compiles on cygwin but not in mingw environment

  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <sys/types.h>
  #include <unistd.h>
  int main()
  {
      fork();
      printf("Hello world!\n");
      return 0;
  }

• on cygwin, the generated executable has below output from dumpbin

  C:\cygwin64\home\ntoslinux>dumpbin  /imports a.exe
  Dump of file a.exe
  File Type: EXECUTABLE IMAGE
    Section contains the following imports:
      cygwin1.dll
  ...
            229 fork
  ...
  

• Some of the functions of posix family which can be implemented on MSVC like open are still supported in Mingw as MSVC already has its counter part _open function - List of supported posix functions can be found here. Also other functions like opendir from dirent.h(not present in MSVC) are also available as these can be easily implemented on top of Win32 API.

[2019-10-06 20:25:49]

• Any ucrt function which begins with _ is a non standard api provided by ucrt. For example in string.h's _strdup, _strlwr, _strrev are some. The take away here is, it is easy to identify which function is part of C standard and which are not. Interestingly some(not all) of these non standard functions are part of posix so in glibc(which implements posix) don't have _ in them.
• All posix function in posix standard with [CX] annotation indicate Extension to the ISO C standard for example, below function from stdlib.h is posix extension. UCRT defines a similar api called _putenv, since this is not part of C standard, UCRT version has an _

  stdlib.h - posix
  [CX] int setenv(const char *, const char *, int);
  stdlib.h - ucrt
  int _putenv( const char *envstring );
  
  stdio.h - posix
  [CX] int fileno(FILE *);
  stdio.h - ucrt
  int _fileno( FILE *stream );

[2019-10-08 17:47:04]

• Learned about CGold: The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the CMake. An awesome tutorial about CMake.
• Now it is super easy to start a C project without worrying about the individual build systems.

  # CMakeLists.txt - minimum content
  cmake_minimum_required(VERSION 3.4)
  project(command_line_parser)
  add_executable(command_line_parser main.c)
  
  # create a sub directory called build
  # cd build
  # cmake ..                          # generate build files
  # cmake --build . --config Release  # will use the build files generated in the previous step
  
  # commands to run to generate the respective native build files like vcxproj files
  # In below command -S standards for source directory path.
  # -B stands for final directory where vcxproj files are generated
  # CMake only generate one flavor (x64/x86) per project file, here we are generating x64 by specifying x64
  cmake -S . -B builds -G "Visual Studio 16 2019" -A x64
  # we can also use cmake-gui to do the above
  
  # Once vcxproj files are generated we can either directly build the proj files using Visual Studio
  # or better use cmake itself to build it for us from CMD using msbuild
  cmake --build builds

[2019-10-15 04:41:04]

• Coreboot coding guidelines have some good rationale

[2020-10-15 00:53:32]

• intsafe.h has various safe integer conversion/basic arithmetic functions.
• Fixed size integer types can have below integer literals. i8,i16,i32,i64 for signed and ui8, ui16, ui32, ui64 suffixes

  #define INT8_MAX        127i8
  #define UINT8_MAX       0xffui8
  #define INT16_MAX       32767i16
  #define UINT16_MAX      0xffffui16
  #define INT32_MAX       2147483647i32
  #define UINT32_MAX      0xffffffffui32
  #define INT64_MAX       9223372036854775807i64
  #define UINT64_MAX      0xffffffffffffffffui64

[2023-04-08 22:58:25]

UCRT Paths

• Include: C:\Program Files (x86)\Windows Kits\10\Include%Version%\ucrt.
• Source: C:\Program Files (x86)\Windows Kits\10\Source%Version%\ucrt.
• Redist DLLs: C:\Program Files (x86)\Windows Kits\10\Redist%Version%\ucrt\DLLs%ARCH%.
• Debug DLL: C:\Program Files (x86)\Windows Kits\10\bin%Version%%ARCH%\ucrt.

[2023-04-10 22:49:45]

• freopen can be used to redirect the stdin/stdout/stderr streams
• %S in printf is not standard C format specifier. It appears to be MSVC extension.
  • Standard format specifier for wide char in printf is %ls.
  • printf("Name: %ls", L"ntoslinux");
  • wprintf(L"Name: %ls", L"ntoslinux");

• At this stage don't worry about build tools. First get comfortable with the fluently writing code. May be a simple make file should be sufficient for now.

• Not just implementing canned text book algo + DS but general algo like implementing crypto algos like md5 checker etc.

• One way to master this is, trying to implement file format parsers. Like, Png parser, Pdf parser.

• CRT Debugging Techniques
• Learn Musl library